NORTHBOUND TEN: INDIGENOUS
weaving life with seasons
defying constraint
The goal of the trip North was to discover more of our planet. Within the framework of our itinerary to experience mountains, forests, seek wildlife, etc., we visited museums, galleries, and several cultural centers. We camped in National and Provincial Parks where land is protected somewhat from industrial destruction. We never expected to learn stories of the original people.
The Lheidli T’enneh territory is at the confluence of the Nechako and Fraser rivers.
The detail shows the flowers (of spring) painted on the wall behind reminiscent of the traditional embroidery of the region.
Peoples lived successfully, in what we call North America, for thousands of years prior to the gradual advance of foreigners. Understanding the patterns of the natural world, living in harmony with the seasons, was critical to existence. Fishing, hunting, gathering plants and berries, provided foods and other necessary goods. These were collected and enjoyed seasonally as well as laboriously preserved for the winter months.
Hunting and gathering required travel to access areas dictated by the growing cycles of plants and the movements of the animals. There were interactions with other clans and Nations, some cooperative and some clashing. (Suggested reading: Indigenous Continent by Pekka Hamalainen)
Once foreigners arrived, beaver, sea otters, and salmon were resources harvested to near extinction for export. Concerted effort to eradicate the indigenous culture itself took place in Canada from the 1880s to the 1990s. Families were broken, children sent to residential schools where they were stripped of language, possessions, traditions, and even their names as they were assigned numbers. All matrilineal rights were denied.
The Sixties Scoop
As late as the 1960s, infants and children were removed to foster care with Canadian families to "assimilate" them into the preferred culture.
Today, First Nations people consider it testimony to their strong character that they have survived the last few centuries of foreign onslaught. It has been a long battle for maintaining a legal distinction as First Nations, not interested in being absorbed into the general Canadian populace.
The information below shows up on every website for Canada's parks. We were impressed with the Canadian government taking these steps. Even though they have a long way to go, we can only hope that perhaps, one day, the US government will begin to comprehensively address similar issues.
SHARED STEWARDSHIP & PARTNERSHIPS
"BC Parks is committed to strengthening our government-to-government relationships with Indigenous Peoples as we build upon a foundation of common interest in managing, protecting and preserving our land base, while undertaking sustainable uses that benefit everyone. BC Parks is dedicated to recognizing and respecting Indigenous Peoples and integrating our respective roles in protected areas stewardship and management."
Separate First Nations work within the system to change the system that has been imposed, slowly gaining, literally, inches of ground. Lawyers and scientists adamantly pursue the communities' rights to access their lands, to adapt their sustainable way of life to today.
Rather than an effort to go back in time, they strive to continue from a rich past into the future, protecting the resources they continue to depend on.
The Salmon People
Salmon served as the predominant food in the Pacific Northwest. The means of catching, preparing, preserving was a serious community effort that lasted until the end of the spawn.
Critical to their livelihood, dances, songs, and carvings all paid tribute. High quality wild Salmon continues to be the foundation of the diet and is vigorously defended.
Centennial Pole in Duncan, BC.
Salish carver, Calvin Hunt, included salmon up one side of the pole. The five salmon honor the five original coastal tribes. A representative of each tribe was present at the dedication ceremony.
The Clash: Modern Salmon Practice
The indigenous knowledge of the salmon cycle was only matched by the ignorance of colonizers. One People considered themselves part of nature and stewards of the resources, while the late-comers believed they were above nature; meant to control it, bend it to their will, use it up.
Following fur trade exploitation and the gold frenzy, salmon was discovered to be palatable to fresh markets, the take-all policy for canning was devastating. They still like to call salmon Red Gold in Alaska. (See Ch 7).
It is slowly being understood by some, agonizingly slowly, that vast complex ecosystems evolved over time and the alteration of just one aspect has unforeseen consequences. Wetlands are necessary to health of watersheds and unlimited dams are counterproductive. (Look into the current removal of Klamath River dams amid great controversy.)
On a smaller scale, trees removed from sides of rivers robbed salmon of shady retreats whichever direction they were traveling. Downfall removal from streams reduced critical spawning nooks. Dammed lakes do not allow the salmon fry to return to the ocean to repeat their natural cycle and blocked stream entries deny them upstream runs.
Carved house-posts: the Salmon and Sea-wolf are two of the symbols of the Jamestown S'Klallam, a strong Salish tribe.
Recent S’Klallam wetland work involved removing a levee for restoration of the Dungeness River floodplain on behalf of the salmon.
As of 8/16/24, US Fish and Wildlife shares stewardship of Dungeness Wildlife Refuges with the Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe. The Tribe is now taking over day-to-day management.
In upper Washington, equipment is used to monitor salmon fry numbers on the Nooksack River near Bellingham. (They are counted and released).
Pacific Northwest Artwork
We are drawn to artwork and artistic expression wherever we are. In our travels we learned as we went, to somewhat appreciate language, place names, trade routes, and historic practices including the use of materials.
The endeavors of First Nations engaged in a renaissance of regaining their traditional ways was revealed. Their striving for balance between tourism and willingness to share their cherished (if damaged) heritage runs a spectrum.
We all recognize the stylized images of the Pacific Northwest. It is distinct, found nowhere else. It differed slightly from area to area within the vast region, but had these factors in common.
*The Formline: A black line that varies between thick and thin, yet is continuous.
*Black and red being the dominant colors while blues and greens are sometimes used.
*Ovoid shapes and U shapes.
HIDES, BENTWOOD, WEAVING, ADORNMENT
Necessity, skill, and time were the factors of making clothing, homes, weapons, and tools by hand. Hunting both marine and land animals provided meat and hides, while the bone provided implements. Tanned hide served as protection from the cold. When adorned, it became meaningful visual art. The design was actually integrated into the necessities of life. They were not art for art’s sake, not religious iconography, but a part of the whole.
Tanned hides from moose, elk, and deer were used for hand held drums, sometimes plain and sometimes bearing identity crests.
Crow and Wolf
Heavy forests provided critical material. Bark and roots were woven into the classical hats, baskets, and the plant material was added to animal wool in weaving blankets.
Basketry woven from spruce roots and grass; these are often called Berry Baskets used to collect seasonal food to be eaten fresh as well as stored for winter. As needed, they were made water-tight, using a method called twining.
Museum of the North, UA FairbanksThe Bentwood Box
Thin sheets of cedar wood were cut and heated over fire, then bent at precise angles to be used for storage boxes.
A Haida Bentwood Box with woven cedar lid. A man’s spruce-root hat next to it illustrates how large this box is by comparison. Noteworthy: this hat has five skils atop, often depicted in Totem Poles (see below)
Gil caught me through the glass (at right) of this exhibit: an orca headpiece, woven clothing and copper clad bentwood boxes. The centerpiece was typically worn at a potlatch, considered ceremonial regalia.
Museum of the North, UA at FairbanksThere is much debate on the source of the aqua coloring of the Chilkat blanket regarding the use of copper and/or indigo. Elk teeth and porcupine quills may have embellished clothing made in the interior, these are puffin beaks.
Button blankets (not pictured) were tightly woven dark fabric with the crest appliqued over; abalone buttons outlined the images and edges.
Moose hair tufting on birch bark (above)
Below, a traveling sewing kit and crochet hooks all carved from moose bone and cartilage.
At Teslin, we got a quick glimpse of this artwork being used today. The building was about to close and no photographs were allowed inside.
The exhibit was a collection of recent Yukon high-school graduation outfits. The dresses were stunning, made from hides tanned to chamois-quality softness, fitted couture designs were embellished with embroidery, beadwork, tufting, etc. One graduation dress had been the grandmother’s wedding dress. The few examples of young men’s garments were equally beautiful. Some displayed family crests in capes from the button blanket tradition still worn ceremonially.
A later conversation with a young lady, in Whitehorse, confirmed that there was no comparison during graduation with the indigenous turnouts. The outfits are recognized for, not just their exquisite beauty, but the countless hours invested in them by family members.
In the Pacific Northwest, the figures depicted in painting, needlecraft, wood carving, etc., called crests, represent identity. These speak of clan lineage, of heroic deeds, and of legends. Families owned their crests and displayed them as both identification and associated rights. (The images appeared in some of the items above.) Wood carvings dramatically display Crests.
This Wolf and Raven Crest represents the regional moiety (two-part system).
Historically, carvers were a respected and integral part of the community. Carvers today are representatives of the renaissance of their culture. Small carvings are made from bone, antler, a volcanic material called argillite, and various woods, as well as precious metals.
TOTEM POLE IDENTITY
The tall Totem Poles are something we may easily recognize, but with little understanding. They are carved form spruce and, primarily, from the red cedar that grows extravagantly on the Pacific NW coast. Some poles were hollowed to be lighter for hauling and erecting; the curved front-facing carvings reached the edges. Others were done with whole trees, weighing tons, that are carved all the way around.
The arrangement of the crests or totems on the poles is significant to the clan. Interior poles were created as roof supporting posts in the huge timber long-houses. Exterior poles were raised for various other purposes; frontal identity poles, funeral or memorial poles, and occasionally, shame poles (for debtors).
Modern totem poles may duplicate or replace older ones for posterity, may be based on the carver’s heritage, or may reference other themes.
The welcoming poles in Chilliwack, BC were down for repair in a protective shed. One, a bare-chested male and the other, a female with classic woven cape, both symbolically wearing woven hats.
First Nations clans are matrilineal and certain obligations go specifically with the mother or father, but clan lineage passed from mother to children.
Tourism Chilliwack, BC
L to R: Raven, Frog, Wolf, Beaver, Eagle
L to R: Raven, Wolf, Eagle, Frog, Beaver
In the past, some clans were known for taller, more slender poles than others, some used paint, others did not. Some groups made attempts to shore up the poles as the wood aged while others accepted decay as a natural part of time passing.
Coastal Haida village 1900 
Gitanyow 1910
The pole style indicated the wealth of the person who ordered it, full or half-round, height, crest order, the talent of the carver, etc. Historically, the enterprise could take years to achieve. Each stage was expensive in terms of labor: locating and hauling a suitable tree, building a secretive shelter for carving, inclusion of crests within crests, tool making, and the actual carving.
The raising of the pole could be an even greater expense than creating it. The labor to trench the path, dig the deep hole, build the scaffolding, make the rope, and eventually hoist it upright into its home site was intense and the successful placing dramatic.
Many clans were invited, to help, and to witness. The raised pole documented important events or even territorial rights. Doing this process today takes entire community participation to raise funds, provide labor, and rewards them with pride of renewed identity.
POTLATCH AND THE BAN
Traditionally, a Potlatch was given ceremoniously, including for pole-raising and could last several days. Massive amounts of food were required to feed guests. lavish hand-made gifts prepared over the previous year, were given to all. The raised pole was both visible and tangible; the accompanying potlatch ceremony marked the intangible.
The key word is witnessing, as this was the basis of any potlatch. Attending a potlatch was considered an agreement to witness, acknowledge, and honor into the future whatever was presented by the host. This documentation, if you will, of the host’s agenda, was held by the individuals present. Both attending and giving a potlatch carried serious obligations. Another prominent such ceremony acknowledged name-giving, profoundly attached to lineage .
The Potlatch Ban was initiated in 1884. Modern accounts claim it was so the indigenous would assimilate into Canadian society, a sanitized description. The verbiage at the time was a desire to “civilize” the people by removing their practices of self-governing, confiscating their masks, drums, head-dresses, and other prized possessions. Their dances were forbidden on pain of imprisonment.
In 1951, the ban was lifted but it took twenty years or more for the people to trust the repeal. Generations of craftsmen were lost. The renaissance is the re-creation of old arts and practices. Once studied and revived, they are being taught to younger generations.
GITXSAN BANDS
'KSAN
On our previous post-covid visit to ‘Ksan, it was, like other indigenous communities, still closed to visitors. This choice was made to fiercely protect the people from contamination.
We walked around the silent village. The Skeena River is just beyond the buildings and lawn. This major water route connected the area with the Pacific 300 km away.
The Skeena River was the major trade route and the way coastal red cedar was brought to Interior Tsimshian and Gitxsan clans from the coast. Our road followed the same path, alongside the Skeena.
The piled logs are evidence of its power during the snow melt. This and other rivers marked territory including fishing/hunting rights, etc.
We went back this trip to explore further, luckily staying at the campground on the property. What had been closed was now available. We booked the tour allowing us to visit each longhouse loaded with cherished possessions from multiple families. Understandably, photographs were not allowed.
The gift-shop is far left, the café at center, and the collections were housed in the three long-houses at right: Fireweed, Wolf, and Frog.
The collections were presented very well. The young lady that guided us (Frog/Raven mother, Wolf Father) was a wealth of not just information, but understanding on many levels. She spoke on kinship, language, personal responsibility and honor in both leaders and community, subsistence, craft, being part of nature, trade, warfare and more.
The diorama of Eulachon fish, collected in baskets and being dried on racks, was excellent. It was not just high food value for the clan, but prestigious to have a store of it.
Fireweed House
Nearby Kispiox and Gitanyow have collections of very old totem poles.
KISPIOX
The Kispiox river just before it merges with the Skeena. We had a picnic lunch here, one afternoon, just enjoying the river sounds and absorbing the eons of history around us.
Leaving 'Ksan, we detoured to present day Gitanyow as we headed North.
GITANYOW
Comically, we stopped for a big black dog sitting in a nearby street. Nope, not a dog, but a black bear that wandered off between the houses.
These poles, now, have nearly merged with trees that grew between them and the river.
The center was not manned but the outer gate was unlocked. (The ironwork was based on the village as it looked in 1910).
Clearly the building had been built to house and preserve these specific pieces. Gitanyow chiefs, today, consider the totem poles to be the deeds to the territory. Post-colonial industrial concerns have caused disputes between bands that had always agreed to boundaries and fishing rights. Court battles continue.
HAIDA GWAII
Haida Gwaii is rich in totem art. Historically, it is likely they were the earliest poles erected. Many poles were moved as villages moved over time; others were sold or stolen and shipped to faraway lands after the ban. While most of the remaining have fallen and returned to earth, some still stand, over 100 years old, facing a sheltered cove at the remote edge of the archipelago.
Living watchmen were a Haida village reality and the practice continues today at remote sites. Carved watchmen often top totem poles throughout BC and Alaska, known by their woven hats. They keep vigil.
Haida Heritage Centre, Skidegate
The totem pole on the far right was removed and shipped to England. It arrived at the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford in 1901.
Visiting that museum in 2015, we actually happened to see it while seeking out a feathered cape that had been removed from Hawaii.
While my photo is blurred due to low light in the building, the pole is clearly the main feature.
We did not get to the remote areas of Haida Gwaii to see the old poles. However, in the culturally rich small town of Old Masset, at the very North end of the island, we got to see a variety of relatively modern ones.
Along a residential street, the home of carver Christian White. At the top, each pole features three watchmen. The one farther back, is not a memorial, but rather, a Living Haida pole. White carved it from a large 900 year-old red cedar. The potlatch that went with the raising in 2022, was also a name-giving ceremony for him and many family members.
This pole faces the water. The Eagle at the bottom holds a canoe puller, with paddle; he watches.
Eagle and Raven are painted on this shop front. Very tasteful, Sarah's is loaded with goods from rafters to floor. She carries very expensive local art (carvings, drums, paddles, woven hats, etc.) as well as tee-shirts and books, and limited tourist trinkets. Authentic items are available to see and purchase online as well.
Sarah’s Haida Arts & Jewelry
Available to answer questions, Sarah was knowledgeable but also freely admitted when uncertain. Once she understood our interest in canoes, she directed us to the longhouse where both dugout canoes and a totem pole were being carved.
We visited the longhouse she directed us to; we would never have found it. This pole was being painted but the workers were not present when we were there.
A modern memorial pole carved by Reg Davidson for his late nephew, also raised in 2022.
The center is based on a Raven rattle: honoring transformation between Man and Raven (the creator).
Below, an actual ceremonial Raven Rattle from the cultural museum in Prince Rupert.
The museum features Haida Gwaii collections of art as both artifact and modern pieces.
ALASKA
Southeast Alaska, the panhandle, is included in the Pacific Northwest by both climate and culture (dark green area). We enjoyed visiting The Heritage Center at Anchorage.
This building features a small entry door that required stooping to get through, likely a design to minimize cold winter air.
The House Far Away from Home
Eyak
Tlingit
Eagle and Raven, back-to-back, are sometimes referred to as the lovers.
The male and female below, are also back-to-back in their button blankets.
The phrase “low man on the totem pole” is uninformed at best; the bottom figure(s) may be the most important in crest order.
CANOES AND HEALING
Obviously, we have developed an interest in canoes since living in Hawaii. Both the historical voyaging throughout the Pacific and modern practices and competitions are related to the renaissance of the Hawaiian story.
In North America, birch bark and moose hide river-going canoes are more common in the interior and sealskin hide kayaks (qayaq) are used for hunting in the North Pacific and Arctic Oceans.
Models with and without the outer skin. Functional variations in bow design are based on water conditions.
In our trips to the Pacific Northwest, we encountered dug-out canoes (single tree construction) and the dedication of modern carvers teaching new generations the art as a proud link to their heritage.
The craft of building sturdy canoes to handle ocean waves, fast river currents, and/or strong winds has been revived. Learning construction skills, as well as learning to handle the boats in the water, helps to heal the wounds of the people. The dugouts are hand carved from either a single spruce or red cedar tree.
This old Haida village may have been known for the totem poles, but access to them was by canoe.
In the Fraser River Valley, BC, this roundabout in Ch'illiwack gives tribute to eight First Nations. The word ch'illiwack literally means going upriver as far as you can by canoe.
Copper sculpture at Beringia, Yukon
Homage to the sacred canoe and teaching modern youth to be "canoe pullers."
The long narrow paddles, highly decorated, this one with abalone.
Museum of Northern BCThe dugouts in this canoe shed are clearly used regularly evidenced by the life jackets.
Tlingit Heritage Centre, Teslin, YT
Wolf and Raven
Up-close and personal experiences; major highlights of our adventure North.
We got to paddle a dugout on Lake Kathleen in the Yukon and to visit as a canoe was being carved in Old Masset, Haida Gwaii.
Lake Kathleen, Yukon
Driving toward Whitehorse on our southbound journey we stopped once again at the Haines Junction center by the Kluane Mountains, home of the Champagne-Aishihik First Nation (sham-pane-A-shi-ak).
The national park side was great and the cultural side was equally fantastic. (See mask sculpture at start of chapter).
Inside, I read that they would be taking canoes out on the water in a few days and commented what a shame it was we would miss it. (One of the unscheduled hopes I had was that we would get to paddle an authentic canoe.)
Apparently, someone heard me and sent John out to tell us they were going out that very evening. The lake was only 20km away.
We shifted our plans and set up at a new campground. Both boats arrived but so did some strong wind, making whitecaps on the water. It was doubtful we would go out after all.
While we waited to see if the wind would calm down, we chatted with our young steersman, Jay Reid, who had helped build this dugout. He described canoe carving as a healing process. He was a student of master carver, Wayne Price, a Tlingit hired by the center to teach the craft. Once the canoe was completed, the students had to paddle down the Yukon River, to the coast, as completion of their apprenticeship.
The canoe is red cedar, a tree brought from Haines on the coast; the side rails are yellow cedar. The floral motif is based on embroidery rather than animal crests; a theme of the region.
He also shared a few personal stories including that he had been “scooped” in the 60s and given to a white couple. While respectful of them (he felt lucky they were kind), John has returned to his people. He is making connections with folks like us, causing ripples in the pond.
We ran into references to Wayne Price several times. A Tlingit from Alaska, his carving methods have reached far and wide.
The healing carvings are meant as grief release for the trauma of cultural loss over generations. In his teachings, each chip of cedar removed represents a damaged family suffering as survivors of residential schools, from domestic violence or gender abuse, drugs or alcohol, missing and murdered girls and women. The chips are added to a fire, each with the name of an individual. The fire may burn for more than a day with singing and drumming throughout, allowing the grief to be purged.
Price is bridging the culture: before colonization and after. His effort is for everyone to face the reality of it before moving on.
As mentioned earlier, we spent a few days in and near Whitehorse – Yukon’s capitol. Not knowing what to expect, we visited a gallery called Northern Cultural Expressions Society. In fact, the shop fronted a workshop.
The young lady on hand explained that none of the carvers were in as they were at an off-site project. As students of Wayne Price, they were now tasked with carving a canoe without him. This would serve as their final exam, ending their apprenticeship as full-fledged carvers.
Soap was made during the process of burning the cedar chips collected while carving the dug-outs.
Healing Cedar Canoe Soap
Old Masset, Haida Gwaii
Directed to the carving shed belonging to the White family by Sarah at her shop, we would not have known it was there! A young man answered the knock and we spent part of the afternoon there.
This was an impressive collection of boats at different stages of the process. (We did not meet the carver at the far end, I think we interrupted their lunch time). We could see the sections not yet carved out that keep the tree solid until next steps are taken. The adze marks had not yet been smoothed out.
Gil and Chris discussing that canoe. Chris loved explaining their work, answering questions thoughtfully.
This center boat will be patched where the wood is compromised. It was found unfinished, for probably thirty years, and will now be completed.
Schedule of events on Haida Gwaii for the crew of the Hokulea, July 2023. The hosting group were the Haida Guardians.
A jigsaw puzzle we bought in Prince Rupert, one of the most difficult we have done!
L to R: Eagle, Raven, Beaver repeat, lastly, Killer Whale and steersman are combined; Sun above and the all important salmon below.
Journey of Hope by Todd Stephens, Nisga'a
Note: While writing this chapter, I was brought to tears more than once. discovering the current indigenous renaissance ended my journey with hope.
Acknowledgements: Northbound
First and foremost, I wish to thank my loving husband for not only joining me on this exploration North, but for driving. Between 2022 and 2023 it tallied over 15,000 miles of often two lane, dirt roads pulling a trailer over mountains; just to make me happy.
Next, thank you to our human friends that agreed to appear in our story.
For copyright permissions, valuable information, verification of facts, as well as lively encouragement on this project:
Kim Uyehara, Kauai wildlife biologist,
Sylvie Corneloup at Kluane National Park who even provided me extra photos to complete one narrative
Shelby at Da Ku Cultural Centre, who gave permissions, and also got me in touch with John Findland
John Findland for being who he is
Susan Marsden, Curator of the Museum of Northern British Columbia, Prince Rupert
Christina Parks, Director of Visitor Services at the University of Alaska Museum of the North, Fairbanks
Jolleen, Tourist Board, Port Alberni, BC
Sarah Hillis, owner/operator of Haida's Arts and Jewelry since 1975. Old Massett, Haida Gwaii. The gallery supports the many and varied artists of the community.
There are so many that showed us kindness on our journey and others we did not meet but appreciate for working to enrich our shared world.
The White family in Haida Gwaii for their invaluable work on restoring, healing, and continuing the fundamental essence of the original people in their traditional longhouse and carving shed. We were unable to confirm young Chris is part of the White family.
Wayne Price and Bill Reid, both artists that brought canoe carving back to the people.
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